As we navigate the 21st century, two intertwined narratives pose significant challenges to societies worldwide: the “End of Religion” hypothesis and the “Clash of Civilisations” narrative. Both theories explore the evolving role of religion in an increasingly secular world and the cultural conflicts that arise from these shifts. Understanding their interdependence is crucial for addressing the societal challenges they present.
The “End of Religion” hypothesis posits that as societies advance in education, science, and rational thought, the influence of religion will diminish. Proponents argue that secular values and scientific understanding will eventually replace religious beliefs and practices. This hypothesis envisions a world where critical thinking and empirical evidence guide societal progress, potentially leading to the decline of religious influence.
Conversely, the “Clash of Civilisations” narrative, coined by political scientist Samuel P. Huntington, predicts that future conflicts will primarily arise from cultural and religious differences rather than ideological or economic disputes. Huntington argued that the post-Cold War world would see clashes between different cultural and religious identities as the main source of global tension.
In India, the rise of secular spirituality and rationalism often comes hand in glove with the resurgence of Hindu nationalism. This dynamic creates internal cultural tensions pitching the Hindu religious majority against minorities.
Impact on Society
The interplay between the “End of Religion” hypothesis and the “Clash of Civilisations” narrative presents several challenges:
- Polarisation: Increased polarisation within and between societies makes dialogue and cooperation more difficult, exacerbating conflicts.
- Policy and Governance: Governments may struggle to balance secular policies with respecting religious freedoms, leading to contentious political environments and potential instability.
- Cultural and Educational Policies: The push for secular education can lead to resistance from communities that value religious education. Debates over curriculum content, the inclusion of religious texts, can become flashpoints.
Huntington’s thesis is overly simplistic and reductionist. It ignores the underlying economic, political, and historical factors driving conflicts. Framing conflicts as civilisational clashes diverts attention from issues like resource control, geopolitical strategies, and power dynamics. The “End of Religion or “New Atheism” paradigms provide fuel to this fire by ignoring the social and cultural contexts in which religious beliefs are embedded.
The “End of Religion” hypothesis and the “Clash of Civilisations” narrative are interconnected through the dynamics of Secularisation, New Atheism, Secular Spirituality, identity conflicts, and globalisation. Their interplay highlights significant social and political challenges and make us aware about how power and ideology shape societal conflicts. The elites today are deliberately manipulating religious and cultural identities to maintain control and divert attention from structural inequalities. Thus the conflicts described by the “End of Religion” and “Clash of Civilisations” narratives are often driven by deeper socio-economic and political factors.
In this background we discuss the two stalwarts of Indian Civilisational Paradigm, Abul Kalam Azad and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. Their thesis and works are in a way antidote to these two ideological challenges of modernity.
A question may arise why these two? Abul Kalam Azad and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan stand out as remarkable figures in the annals of Indian intellectual and political history, making them ideal choices for a comparative study of civilisational paradigms. Both men were not only distinguished scholars of religious philosophy but also played pivotal roles in the formative period of the Indian republic, holding some of the highest political offices in the country.
Their contributions to India’s freedom struggle underscore their profound understanding of the political and social landscape of the nation. Azad, as a leading figure in the Indian National Congress and the first Minister of Education in independent India, and Radhakrishnan, as the second President of India and a renowned philosopher, were instrumental in shaping modern India.
Interestingly, both Azad and Radhakrishnan were born in the same year, 1888, and thus belonged to the same generation, experiencing the country’s transformation together. Their contemporaneous perspectives provide a unique vantage point for understanding the evolution of Indian thought and civilisation during a critical period in history.
Moreover, both intellectuals have made significant contributions to religious scholarship, with Azad providing an Urdu translation and commentary on the Quran and Radhakrishnan offering translations and interpretations of the Upanishads. Their deep engagement with these religious texts reflects their commitment to exploring and elucidating the spiritual foundations of civilisation.
Their extensive body of work encompasses a wide range of topics related to the civilisational paradigm, making them authoritative voices in this discourse. Azad’s writings emphasise the importance of cultural synthesis and pluralism, while Radhakrishnan’s works advocate for the integration of spiritual and ethical principles into societal development.
Thus the choice of Azad and Radhakrishnan for this comparative study is justified by their shared commitment to religious philosophy, their influential political roles, their involvement in India’s freedom struggle, and their scholarly contributions to understanding civilisation. Their intellectual legacies offer invaluable insights into the interplay of religion, culture, and politics in shaping the Indian civilisation.
Civilisational Paradigms
Abul Kalam Azad and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan are towering figures in the intellectual and political history of India. Their contributions are pivotal to understanding the philosophical and civilisational paradigms of their time, and they offer rich insights into enduring principles that continue to shape contemporary Indian society. In particular, their thoughts and writings stand as a counterpoint to narratives such as the “End of God” and “The Clash of Civilisations,” presenting an inclusive, harmonious vision of cultural and religious integration.
Philosophical Reflections: East and West
Both Azad and Radhakrishnan grappled with the complex interplay between philosophy, religion, and culture. Azad’s Ghubar-e-Khatir (1943), a collection of letters written during his imprisonment, reveals his deep philosophical musings on life, existence, and the quest for eternal truths.
He writes, “Life is but a fleeting moment, a transient state, a brief sojourn in the grand scheme of the universe. Yet, within this short span, man strives to grasp the eternal, to understand the infinite. This quest for understanding is what defines our existence.” Azad’s reflections blend classical philosophy with his own insights, creating a tapestry of profound thought that underscores the continuity and relevance of spiritual inquiry.
In contrast, Radhakrishnan’sThe Hindu View of Life (1927) presents Hinduism as a dynamic and evolving tradition, emphasising its inclusivity and adaptability. He writes, “The Hindu mind never demanded a uniform creed or a single path. It recognised the necessity of freedom in religious belief and the variety of approaches to the ultimate reality.”
Radhakrishnan underscores the integration of metaphysical inquiry with practical living, highlighting the ethical dimensions of spirituality.
Radhakrishnan’sEastern Religions and Western Thought (1939) explores the interactions between Eastern and Western religious and philosophical traditions. He argues that the crossfertilisation of ideas from these traditions enriches both.
He states, “The encounter between Eastern spirituality and Western rationality has given rise to new forms of philosophical inquiry. The cross-fertilisation of ideas enriches both traditions.”
Radhakrishnan’s work highlights commonalities and differences, advocating for a synthesis that leads to a more holistic understanding of reality.
Religious and Ethical Discourse
Azad’s deep engagement with religious and ethical themes is evident in his discussions on Islam in Ghubar-e-Khatir. He emphasises the importance of ethical conduct and moral integrity, citing examples from Islamic history and the Quran.
He asserts, “The Quranic injunctions on justice and equity are not mere commandments; they are the bedrock upon which a just society is built. To deviate from these principles is to undermine the very essence of our faith.”
Azad’s reflections provide a nuanced understanding of the ethical imperatives in Islam and their relevance to societal development.
Radhakrishnan, in his Religion and Society (1947), examines the role of religion in shaping human society and culture. He asserts that religion fundamentally influences ethical behaviour, social structures, and cultural values.
He writes, “Religion is the soil in which society’s roots are planted. It shapes our moral frameworks and provides the ethical guidelines that govern our interactions.”
Radhakrishnan emphasises the need for religious tolerance and the integration of spiritual principles into societal development, arguing that neglecting these foundations leads to moral decay.
Azad’s Journalistic Endeavours: Al-Hilal and Al-Balagh
Abul Kalam Azad’s contributions to political discourse were significantly shaped through his journalistic efforts, particularly in the magazines Al-Hilal (1912-1914) and Al-Balagh (1915-1916). These publications served as powerful instruments of ideological dissemination and political mobilisation.
Al-Hilal was founded to awaken the Muslim community to the political realities of British rule and to emphasise the need for unity in the face of colonial oppression. Azad covered a wide range of topics in Al-Hilal, including political awakening, religious reform, and cultural revival.
Azad used Al-Hilal to call for political activism and awareness among Muslims. He wrote extensively about the importance of self-rule and the injustices of British colonialism. “The time has come for the Muslim community to rise from its slumber and reclaim its rightful place in the struggle for India’s freedom. Our future depends on our unity and resolve” (Azad, Al-Hilal, 1913).
He also advocated for a reinterpretation of Islamic teachings to make them relevant to contemporary issues, encouraging a rational and progressive approach to religion. “Islam is a religion of progress and enlightenment. We must not let outdated interpretations hold us back from embracing the challenges of the modern world” (Azad, Al-Hilal, 1914).
Moreover, Azad emphasised the need for a cultural renaissance among Muslims, urging them to take pride in their heritage while also engaging with modernity. “Our rich cultural heritage is a source of strength and inspiration. We must preserve it while also embracing the advancements of the modern age” (Azad, Al-Hilal, 1913).
After Al-Hilal was banned by the British authorities, Azad continued his mission through Al-Balagh, which carried forward the same themes but with an even more pronounced call to action.
In Al-Balagh, the focus remained on nationalism, social justice, and interfaith harmony. Al-Balagh became a platform for promoting a sense of Indian nationalism that transcended religious boundaries, urging Muslims to join hands with Hindus and other communities in the freedom struggle. “Our struggle for freedom is not just the cause of one community; it is a collective endeavour that requires the unity of all Indians, regardless of their faith” (Azad, Al-Balagh, 1915).
Azad addressed issues of social justice and equality, advocating for the rights of marginalised groups and highlighting the need for social reforms. “True freedom can only be achieved when every individual, regardless of their social status, enjoys equal rights and opportunities” (Azad, Al-Balagh, 1916).
He continued to stress the importance of interfaith dialogue and harmony, laying the groundwork for a pluralistic society. “Our strength lies in our diversity. Let us come together in the spirit of mutual respect and cooperation to build a better future for our nation” (Azad, Al-Balagh, 1916).
Through Al-Hilal and Al-Balagh, Azad masterfully utilised journalism to awaken political consciousness, promote progressive interpretations of Islam, and foster a sense of national unity and social justice. These publications remain a testament to his visionary leadership and commitment to India’s freedom struggle.
Intellectual Discourse: Bridging East and West
While Azad stirred political consciousness through his journals, Radhakrishnan engaged in a different kind of discourse through his scholarly works, bridging Eastern and Western philosophies.
Tarjuman-ul-Quran (1931-1936) is a significant work by Abul Kalam Azad, where he offers an Urdu translation and commentary on the Quran. This multi-volume work stands as a testament to Azad’s dedication to making the Quranic teachings accessible and relevant to contemporary society, particularly for Urdu-speaking Muslims. Written with the intent to bridge the gap between the ancient text and the modern world, Azad’s commentary reflects his effort to interpret the Quran in a way that addresses the social, political, and cultural challenges of his time.
Azad provided contemporary interpretations of the Quranic verses, linking the ancient wisdom to the issues of the modern world. He addressed topics such as justice, social equity, and moral conduct, demonstrating the relevance of Quranic teachings in guiding modern ethical and social issues.
In discussing the Quranic verse on justice, Azad writes, “The principles of justice and equity enshrined in the Quran are not just historical mandates but are applicable to all times and societies. They provide a foundation for building a just and equitable society, transcending the boundaries of time and culture” (Azad, 1931-1936, Vol. 1, p. 120).
In his explanation of the verse on the pursuit of knowledge, Azad emphasises the importance of continuous learning and intellectual development: “The Quran encourages the pursuit of knowledge and intellectual inquiry. This pursuit is not limited to religious knowledge but extends to all fields that contribute to human welfare and understanding” (Azad, 1931-1936, Vol. 2, p. 210).
One of the primary aims of Tarjuman-ul-Quran was to inspire intellectual and spiritual growth. Azad encouraged readers to engage deeply with the Quranic text, not merely as a religious obligation but as a source of profound wisdom and guidance for everyday life.
He writes, “The Quran is a living document that provides guidance for all aspects of life. Engaging with its teachings with an open and reflective mind can lead to personal and societal transformation” (Azad, 1931-1936, Vol. 3, p. 300).
Azad’s commentary is notable for its attempt to balance traditional Islamic teachings with modern challenges. He addressed contemporary issues such as education, governance, and social justice, using the Quranic text to offer solutions and guidance.
Discussing the role of governance, Azad notes, “Islamic principles of governance, as outlined in the Quran, emphasise justice, accountability, and the welfare of the people. These principles are timeless and can guide modern governance structures to ensure they serve the people effectively” (Azad, 1931-1936, Vol. 4, p. 150).
Through Tarjuman-ul-Quran, Azad masterfully blends traditional exegesis with contemporary relevance, providing a roadmap for integrating Quranic wisdom into the fabric of modern life. His work stands as a bridge between past and present, inviting readers to draw from the deep well of Islamic teachings to address the pressing issues of their time.
In his seminal work, The Principal Upanishads (1953), Radhakrishnan offers a scholarly yet accessible translation and commentary on these ancient Hindu texts, elucidating their profound philosophical and spiritual teachings. He emphasises the timeless relevance of the Upanishadic doctrines, particularly the interconnectedness of all life and the nature of the self (atman).
In Eastern Religions and Western Thought (1939), Radhakrishnan explores the interactions between Eastern and Western traditions, advocating for a synthesis that enhances mutual understanding. He neither adopts a decolonial stance nor fully accepts Western thought; rather, he employs a unique lens of inquiry into Western traditions.
He discusses the influence of Eastern philosophies, particularly Hinduism and Buddhism, on Western thought, asserting, “The encounter between Eastern spirituality and Western rationality has given rise to new forms of philosophical inquiry. The cross-fertilisation of ideas enriches both traditions.”
He highlights the common goals of Eastern and Western philosophies despite their differing methods, promoting a dialogical approach.
“While Eastern and Western philosophies have their distinct approaches, their ultimate quest is the same: the pursuit of truth and understanding. The differences are methods, not ends,” he writes.
In Religion and Society (1947), Radhakrishnan examines the role of religion in shaping ethical behaviour and societal values, emphasising the integration of spiritual principles into social structures.
He posits, “Religion is the soil in which society’s roots are planted. It shapes our moral frameworks and provides the ethical guidelines that govern our interactions.”
He further advocates for religious tolerance and the potential for religious teachings to contribute to social harmony and progress, stating, “The spirit of true religion fosters tolerance and understanding. It seeks to unite rather than divide, recognising the common spiritual heritage of humanity.”
Through these works, Radhakrishnan presents a compelling case for the enduring significance of religious and philosophical traditions in fostering a deeper understanding of the human condition and promoting a more harmonious society.
Both the stalwarts neither got deluded by science and rationality postulated “End of God” Narrative Nor any “Clash of Civilisations”. To them religion was an essential ingredient to attaining personal bliss and excellent statecraft. But we find these scholars being misrepresented and misquoted today for narrow political purposes.
Misrepresenting Radhakrishnan: Here are some of the examples of some Hindutva-leaning authors who have been noted for misrepresenting his ideas to fit their own narratives.
Take Arvind Sharma, for example. Sharma has often been criticised for selectively quoting Radhakrishnan, highlighting his admiration for Hindu philosophy while conveniently ignoring his criticisms and his emphasis on Hinduism’s inherent pluralism and inclusivity. This selective quoting can skew the reader’s understanding of Radhakrishnan’s true views.
KoenraadElst is another figure whose interpretations have raised eyebrows. Elst frequently references Radhakrishnan to support arguments about the superiority of Hindu culture. However, Elst often overlooks Radhakrishnan’s broader philosophical contexts, including his advocacy for universalism and secularism, which are key aspects of his thought.
David Frawley, a West-born proponent of Hindutva, also frequently cites Radhakrishnan to underscore the greatness of Hindu civilisation. Yet, his interpretations have been omitting the philosopher’s nuanced views on modernity, secularism, and the necessity for reform within Hindu traditions, which Radhakrishnan saw as vital.
Similarly, Rajiv Malhotra often invokes Radhakrishnan in his discussions about the uniqueness and philosophical depth of Hinduism. Malhotra’s use of Radhakrishnan’s texts sometimes neglects his commitment to interfaith dialogue and his critique of religious orthodoxy.
These examples show how Civilisational icons of Hinduism and their writings are cherry-picked and misused and misrepresented. Thus narrowing the broader scope of their philosophical contributions.
Wrapping-up:
The thoughts and writings of Azad and Radhakrishnan stand in stark contrast to the “End of God” narrative, which suggests the decline of religious belief in the modern world, and the “Clash of Civilisations” theory, which posits inevitable conflict between cultural and religious identities.
Azad’s advocacy for a pluralistic society, where different religious communities coexist harmoniously, and his reinterpretation of Islamic teachings for contemporary relevance, underscore the enduring and pragmatic nature of religion.
Similarly, Radhakrishnan’s synthesis of Eastern and Western philosophies and his emphasis on the spiritual foundations of human existence argue against the notion of an inevitable clash. Instead, they propose a vision of mutual respect, dialogue, and the integration of spiritual and ethical values into societal development, highlighting the potential for harmony and cooperation across cultural and religious divides.
Abul Kalam Azad and SarvepalliRadhakrishnan’s contributions provide rich insights into the civilisational paradigms that have shaped modern Indian thought. Through their philosophical reflections, cultural and literary criticism, religious and ethical discourse, and journalistic endeavours, they have laid the groundwork for an inclusive and harmonious vision of society. Their works continue to inspire and guide us, offering timeless wisdom that counters divisive narratives and promotes unity and understanding.