Morality is the compass for human behaviour. It enables us to determine the right direction and sail across the ocean of life. It’s so fundamental an aspect of our life that it wouldn’t be wrong to assert that morality is what makes us human. Our moral sense differentiates between right and wrong and determines what’s good and bad. It strongly influences the choices that we make and remains a constant companion to our decision-making capabilities. For centuries, morality has been linked with religion and even today, despite an onslaught of new atheism and their untenable Darwinian apologies for morality, religion is widely regarded as the fountainhead of ethical values. However, it would be misleading to assume that there is a consensus on universal moral behaviour or ethical philosophy. This article explores the rich tapestry of moral thought as reflected in various religions namely Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Islam.
The focus, due to space constraints, remains on the foundational principles of ethical philosophy as propounded by these religions. By delving into this comparative analysis of different religions’ moral concepts and framework, and examining their philosophical underpinnings and practical applications, a comparative understanding of the relevance and dynamism of these religions and their moral apparatus can be achieved.
Philosophical Bases of Morality in Hinduism
The moral philosophy in Hinduism revolves around the concepts of Rita, Dharma, and Karma,etc. The Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, are bereft of a comprehensive moral philosophy.However, the concept of Rita is found in the Vedas and Maurice Bloomfieldhas referred to it as “one of the most important religious conceptions of the Rigveda.”
Rita, in simple parlance, refers to the cosmic order – the natural law that governs the universe. In Rigveda, it is described as the principle that maintains the order of the cosmos and the regularity of natural phenomena.It represents the fundamental truth and principle that sustains the operation of the universe and ensures the balance between the cosmic forces. It can be argued quite crudely that the concept of Ritais the precursor to the concept of Dharma as it represents the universal order whileDharma is the human application of that order in daily life. Later, gradually the concept of Ritagot absorbed into the concept of Dharma which was refined and broadened to imply the moral order that sustains the individuals, society, and universe.
The concept of Dharma(duty/righteousness) which was developed in Upanishads and later textsis also traced back to Vedas. To simplify and describe an intricate (and sometimes even conflicting philosophical discourse) in a nutshell,Dharmarefers to the moral law, duty, righteousness, and the ethical path that individuals must follow according to their position in society and stage of life. It encompasses a wide range of duties, including social, legal, and religious obligations.
Dharma is considered essential for maintaining order and harmony in society. It is a guiding principle that determines the right conduct in various situations. In other words, the concept of Dharmaalso prescribes situational ethics. Epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata deal with ethical dilemmas arising from Dharma while Dharmashastrasdeal with jurisprudential complexities. For example, Manusmriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti outline the duties (i.e. Dharma) associated with different stages of life (Ashrama) and social classes (Varna). According to these detailed guidelines for moral conduct, Varna Ashrama Dharma integrates personal, social, and cosmic dimensions of morality, promoting a harmonious and just society.
The Upanishadsemphasise self-realisation and the importance of ethical living as a path to spiritual liberation. Bhagavad Gitaoffers a practical guide to living a moral life. It presents three paths to spiritual realisation: Karma Yoga (path of selfless action), Bhakti Yoga (path of devotion), and Jnana Yoga (path of knowledge). The concept of Nishkama Karma, performing one’s duty without attachment to the results, is a key ethical teaching that emphasises selflessness and dedication to duty.
Swami Vivekananda has criticised the excessive ritualism and rigid orthodoxy that had become associated with Dharma over time.On the other hand, Dharma has been criticised for being too vague and flexibleleading to moral ambiguity and inconsistency. This flexibility can be manipulated to justify unethical actions or inaction.M.K. Gandhi and B.R. Ambedkar, both in their own unique ways, disapproved the traditional interpretation of Dharma and its justification of the caste system. While Vivekananda and Gandhi sought to reinterpret Dharma, Ambedkar was more scathing in his critique and saw the caste system as inherent to Hindu Dharma and thereby averse to reform from within. S. Radhakrishnan has emphasised that concepts like Dharma should not be understood within the narrow confines of traditional social roles. He concedesthat Dharma must evolve with time, adapting to new moral and ethical understandings.
The concept of Karma, which posits that one’s actions in this life or past lives determine one’s present and future experiences, has been critiqued for promoting a deterministic and fatalistic worldview. Critics argue that an overemphasis on Karma might lead individuals to accept social injustices and personal suffering as inevitable consequences of past actions, thereby discouraging active efforts to change one’s circumstances or challenge societal structures.The concept of Karmahas some serious implications for moral responsibility as well. If everything in one’s life is the result of past actions, it diminishes the sense of agency and responsibility in the present. Additionally, the idea that individuals deserve their suffering due to past Karma can lead to a lack of empathy and social support for those in unfortunate circumstances.
Scholars and reformers like Swami Vivekananda, Swami Dayananda Saraswati, and Raja Ram Mohan Roy have critiqued the practice of idol worship and placing too much emphasis on rituals and ceremonies, which overshadows the moral and ethical teachings of the religion. The performance of rituals (Karma Kanda)provides a shortcut to accrue good Karma without necessarily cultivating personal virtues or ethical behaviour. This ritualism has been criticised for promoting superficial religious practices rather than fostering genuine moral development.
Philosophical Bases of Morality in Jainism
Jainism places a strong emphasis on non-violence (Ahimsa) and asceticism. Jain ethics are encapsulated in the Five Great Vows: 1) Ahimsa (non-violence), 2) Satya (truth), 3) Asteya (non-stealing), 4) Brahmacharya (celibacy), and 5) Aparigraha (non-possession). These vows guide Jains towards a life of simplicity, self-discipline, and respect for all living beings.It can be argued that Ahimsa is the foremost principle in Jainism, influencing every aspect of a Jain’s life. Jains strive to live without causing harm to any living being, whether through thoughts, words, or actions.
The ethical philosophy of Jainism has been influenced by the fundamental principles of Anekantavada (many-sided reality), Syadvada (relativity of truth), and Nayavada (plurality of viewpoints). This influence has encouraged tolerance and understanding on one hand and resulted in confusion and uncertainty on the other hand.
Jainism’s concept of Ahimsa is critiqued for its extreme application that is tantamount to being impractical in day-to-day life. The idea of avoiding harm to all living beings, including microorganisms, is so stringent that it leads to practices like covering nose and mouth with facemask, filtering water, sweeping the ground before walking, and avoiding eating root vegetables to prevent killing small creatures. Practically, this extreme form of non-violence is unviable and results in constant agitation; theoretically, this is not feasible and potentially dangerous for human life itself. If such an interpretation of non-violence is taken as the foundational principle of moral philosophy, there is no satisfactory answer to moral dilemmas like: Should pathogens be killed in order to save human life?
Today, it’s true that out-of-control materialism and unbridled consumerism have subdued human civilisation, but solution to this malaise is a balanced perspective towards the world and its belongings and not the opposite extreme of asceticism, celibacy, and renunciation. These principles are not conducive to active social life and community engagement. The idea of Brahmacharya (celibacy) is unrealistic for the majority of people who live in the world and have family obligations. Even for those who practice celibacy, it could have negative psychological effects due to the suppression of natural human instincts.Even if we imagine a utopian (dystopian?)world where significant chunks of the population were to adopt celibacy, there would be no escape from ensuing demographic consequences which would be disastrous.Also, the idea of Aparigraha (non-possessiveness) and extreme detachment from material goods could be viewed as neglectful of one’s social responsibilities or the well-being of one’s dependents.The rigorous self-denial required by these principles would lead to social withdrawal and limit the ability of individuals to play a positive and constructive role in the society; to fuel socio-economic development; or to form meaningful relationships with others.
Philosophical Bases of Morality in Buddhism
Buddhism offers a distinct ethical framework centred on what came to be known as the Four Arya Satya (Noble Truths) and the Ashtanga Marga (Eightfold Path). The noble truths revolve around the concepts of suffering (dukkha), craving(tanha), the end of suffering(nirodha), and the path (marga) leading to liberation from suffering and craving to salvation (moksha). The four Arya Satya are as follows: 1) Life is suffering, 2) The cause of suffering is craving, 3) The end of suffering comes with an end to craving, and 4) There is a path which leads one away from craving and suffering. The path mentioned in the fourth truth is the Ashtanga Marga which includes, 1) Right understanding, 2) Right intent, 3) Right speech, 4) Right conduct, 5) Right livelihood, 6) Right effort, 7) Right mindfulness, and 8) Right concentration (Samadhi) i.e. practicing four stages of meditation (dhyana).
Buddhism also emphasises ethical conduct through the PanchaSila (Five Precepts) and the Bodhisattva vows. The PanchaSila includes 1) To abstain from harming and killing, 2) To abstain from theft, 3) To abstain from sexual misconduct, 4) To abstain from lies and harmful speech, and 5) To abstain from intoxicants. The Bodhisattva vows, taken by those aspiring to become Buddhas, include commitments to alleviate the suffering of all beings.
Concepts of Karma (action) and Samsara (cycle of rebirth) are crucial to Buddhist ethics. Actions driven by greed, hatred, and delusion result in negative karma and suffering, while actions rooted in generosity, compassion, and wisdom lead to positive karma and thereby liberation from Samsara.
Buddhist ethical philosophy has been criticised (especially by Hindu philosophers from Vedantic schools) for its philosophical nihilism. It’s been argued that with concepts like Anatman (no-self) and Sunyata(emptiness), Buddhism cannot provide a positive vision of human existence and stable foundation for morality. Also, overemphasis on suffering and renunciation either renders the ethical philosophy impracticable or leads to aniniquitous disregard for positive aspects of life like joy, creativity and social engagement. The present and direct experience of here-and-now gets downplayedby metaphysical speculations about past lives, future rebirths, or the accumulation of karmic merit. Besides, for an average person with common sense, concepts like Karma and Samsara are too convoluted to be grasped.Who has made the laws of Karma and Samsara? Is it justice to be punished for crimes that I don’t even remember committing? How come there is no beginning or end to the Samsara? There are no satisfactory answers to these and several other questions. Zen Buddhists seem to have a point when they say that unnecessary philosophisation of the spiritual path hinders spiritual growth of individual and society.
Philosophical Bases of Morality in Islam
The ethical philosophy of Islam, as expounded in the Quran and Hadith, is deeply rooted in the belief in Allah and the importance of living a righteous and ethical life in accordance with Divine Guidance. The characteristic features of Islamic moral philosophy are its simplicity,symmetry, and absence of inexplicable contradictions. The philosophical bases of Islamic morality could be enumerated as follows:
The concept of Tauheed (the belief in the oneness and uniqueness of Allah), Risalat (the belief that Allah has sent his messengers to guide humanity and Prophet Muhammadﷺ is the last messenger), and Akhirat (the belief in the Day of Judgement and accountability in the afterlife) are the cornerstone of Islamic morality.
The origin of all human beings can be traced to one father and mother (Prophet Adam and his wife). And hence all humans are equal. There can be no discrimination among them on the basis of caste, colour, language, and geography.
Humans are vicegerents of Allah on this Earth. They are not masters but trustees of the earth and its resources. Hence, in order to attain success and salvation, they need to follow the divine guidance in their relationship with the world and with each other.
Life on this earth is a test. Human beings are free to live their life in sync with divine guidance or in violation of the same. They will be rewarded for their moral conduct and punished for their immoral deeds in the hereafter.
Morality is not a human construct but originates from Allah, who is the ultimate source of all ethical principles.
The only true and authentic source of divine guidance is the prophet of Allah and hence the Quran and Hadith serve as the primary source of moral guidance.Prophets, particularly Prophet Muhammadﷺ is the moral exemplar for humanity. His life providesa role model and practical exampleof how to embody Islamic moral principles in our daily lives.
All actions are to be performed with purity of intentions and the realisation that they are in obedience to Allah’s commands, under His watchful eye and that human beings are accountable for their actions in this life and will be judged in the Hereafter.
Besides unity of mankind and human equality, the Quran and Hadith uphold universal ethical values such as justice (adl), mercy (rahmah), truth (sidq), honesty (amanah), constant watchfulness (taqwa), and perfection(ihsan).The Quran and Hadith also identify and warn against harmful behaviours such as lying, cheating, theft, backbiting, oppression, and injustice.
The concept of Taqwa (God-consciousness) is central to Islamic morality. It refers to a sense of moral awareness and piety that motivates individuals to act in accordance with divine guidance, even in private when no one seems to be watching.
Balance is the hallmark of Islamic moral philosophy. For example, sexual urge is natural and hence Islam detests celibacy, but it is also against unbridled sexuality and hence outlaws promiscuity.Between these two extremes, it advocates for nikah (marriage). Sexual relationship outside the bonds of marriage is regarded as sinful while within the bounds of marriage this relationship is virtuous – gratifying in this world and rewarding in the next.
Practicing morality in one’s individual capacity is not enough. Muslims are duty bound to enjoin the good (amrbilmaroof) and forbid the evil (nahianilmunkar) and exert themselves in order to build a moral society and strive their best to establish a moral world order(iqamat e deen).
Syed Maududi, in his Ethical Viewpoint of Islam, argues that only Islam has judiciously resolved the challenging ethical questions related to the ultimate objective of human life; real source of moral knowledge; and the motive and sanction for morality. He emphasises that Islamic moral philosophy duly incorporates all the best moral ideas and assign them their due place in its framework.
In his words, “The weakness of the ethical systems expounded by philosophers and the sages is not that they are totally devoid of truth and reality but that they regard some particular aspect of truth as the whole truth. They have fallen a prey to the fallacy of regarding the part as the whole, and this apparently left many gaps and loopholes which they had to fill by drawing upon imagination and falling on materials of doubtful validity, thus introducing a large slice of unreality in their systems and making the overall picture distorted and disproportionate.”
“On the other hand,” he continues,“Islam presents the whole truth and in this whole truth all partial truths, which remain imperfect in isolation from one another, are assimilated and synthesised into a perfect unity, nothing superfluous, nothing lacking.”
This sublime character of the ethical philosophy of Islam is due to the fact that Islam is the final, authentic and unadulterated version of divine guidance.
[The writer is Director, Distance and Online Learning, Indian Institute of Islamic Studies and Research]