Caliph Umar succeeded Caliph Abu Bakr as the second in the line of four Rashidun or Rightly Guided Caliphs. According to Joseph Schat and C E Bosworth (Eds.), “The Caliphs did not claim to inherit the spiritual functions and privileges of prophethood.” (Legacy of Islam, p. 158)
The history of Umar bin Khattab, born in a powerful tribe, is transformation of a ‘dark age man’ to an enlightened person. A man of great energy and physical strength, Umar bin Khattab was an exponent of Quraish’s dominance and authority. As such, in the beginning, he was a staunch enemy of Islam. Allama Shibli Numani in his book Al-Farooq gives a good account of the life and times of Umar.
Caliph Umar was one of the few people of his time to have literacy and education. He was master of many branches of knowledge, including martial arts, wrestling and horse riding. This quality of Umar inspired him to read the Holy Qur’ān which he had heard being recited by his sister Fatima. Within no time, Umar could realise the divine content therein and ran to the residence of Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be to him) to declare La Ilaha Illalah Muhammadur Rasoolullah, the pledge one should take to become a believer. Seen with a sword in the hand approaching the Prophet’s residence, he was misunderstood till he conveyed to the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings of Allah be to him) his real intention. The reversion of Umar reflects the powerful influence the Qur’ān has on the hearts of those who listen to it or recite it.
After the demise of the Prophet, the problem of succession aroused. It was Umar who solved the problem by declaring Abu Bakr as Caliph who used to lead prayers in the absence of the Prophet. It was after the passing away of Caliph Abu Bakr that Umar bin al-Khattab was named Caliph on the basis of his merit and ability.
Public propagation of Islam commenced only after Umar declared that he would guard the followers of Islam against the onslaught of Quraish. Till then, the Prophet and his Companions were not able to preach Islam in public, fearing stiff resistance by the Quraish. Thus, the reversion of Umar was a real triumph for the cause of Islam.
TURNING POINT
A turning point in Umar’s life was his interaction with his sister, Fatima bint Khattab. On his way to suppress people who had embraced Islam, he heard the news of his sister’s reversion to Islam. Then, with the intention of punishing his sister and brother-in-law, Umar rushed to Fatima’s house and started beating Fatima. Fatima was stern and adamant and uttered the Kalimah – I pledge that there is no God other than Allah and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah. Umar was a man of prudence and high thinking. His devotion was sincere. Once he believed something true, he acted for that. As an enemy of Islam, he worked for the Quraish and as a follower of Islam he worked for it.
In fact, the Prophet had prayed to Allah for reversion of either Abu Jahl or Umar bin Khattab to Islam. Allah guided Umar to hold the torch of Islamic faith.
DEVELOPMENT OF KNOWLEDGE
As a man of knowledge and education, Caliph Umar organised a prolific system for the propagation of learning in all regions which came under his period of administration. The learned Caliph started educational centres at Kufa and Basra in Iraq region. He selected Hims and Damascus as centres of knowledge in Syrian region. In Palestine region, Jerusalem became the centre of knowledge and learning under Umar bin Khattab.
Highly talented scholars and teachers were appointed to train students of the centres gathered there from different regions of the Arabian subcontinent. The scholars were well paid by the state. The educational centre at Kufa was entrusted to Ibn Masud, a great scholar. Kufa remained a centre of learning for long time. The group of Kufaites during Caliph Ali ibn Abu Talib’s time was appreciated by the Caliph for their high standard of learning. Two great scholars of Umar’s time, Ibn Abbas and Abu Hurairah, who were great authorities of Hadith literature, headed the centre at Basrah. Abu Musa al Ashaari was another great scholar at Basra during Umar’s time.
The egalitarian views of authorities under the Islamic state invited students from different parts of the world, and Kufa, Damascus, Basra and Jerusalem became cosmopolitan cities.
PROPAGATION OF KNOWLEDGE
One of the most important achievements of Islamic administration was its contribution to the development of universal knowledge. In fact, modern knowledge developed by the western people was handed over to them by the students of Islamic education. (See ‘Dictionaries of world religions: Islam’ by Richard Tames). David Wanes writes: “Islamic culture sustained its growth toward maturity.” (p. 59, CUP, 1995)
EDUCATIONAL SYLLABUS
Caliph Umar selected a group of three teachers, Maadh bin Jabal, Ubadah ibn Samat and Abu al-Darda, from the Ansars for the propagation of knowledge in Syria and Palestine. Those scholars were entrusted with the task of training scholars, who, in turn, trained teacher trainees. In fact, the system started by Umar Khattab was the forerunner of teacher’s training schools of modern times. Hims was the centre of training school, and trained teachers were sent to Damascus and Jerusalem. Abu Darda spent his later years at Damascus where he trained teacher trainees. Maadh was sent to Palestine later, while Ubadah remained at Hims till the end.
With the intention of spreading the tradition of the Prophet, Umar sent a group of Ansars, who were well versed in tradition, to Kufa. As the traditions of the Prophet contained basic elements of knowledge, it promoted further researches which led to inventions and discoveries by great scientists like Ibn Haitham, Al Farabi, Al Khawarasmi, Ibn Sina, Jabir ibn Hayyan, Ibn Khaldun and so many others.
LAW AND ORDER
Caliph Umar was the first Islamic administrator to establish a highly organised police department. The police force under its head, ‘Sahibul Ahdath’, maintained law and order of various provinces so that even animals got justice from the Caliph. As liquor is the mother of all evils and thus prohibited as per the Islamic law, those who were liquor-addicts were exiled to remote areas after prescribed lashes. Those who consumed liquor were also made bald-headed.
Caliph Umar was a man of prudence and rationalist. He never misused law. Once, a man was produced before him for theft. Even though as per the Islamic law he had done a crime which prescribes ‘hand cut’, he was forgiven and acquitted due to the fact that he had done the crime under an inevitable situation – to satisfy hunger. At another time, a group of people were produced before the Caliph for killing a camel for food. The Caliph found that they were not paid or given food by their master, Ibn Hatim, for several days. They were acquitted and Umar commented, “If law had permitted, I would have punished the master for the crime done by them.”
ADMINISTRATIVE MEASURES
Caliph Umar was the architect of a stable Islamic government of Muslim regions. Appointing a governor in the Basra province, Umar wrote to him, “Listen, you are not appointed to rule over the necks of the people, but to guide them on the right path, which you know from the Qur’ān and the Sunnah of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be to him). While the governor was the head of provincial administration, Collector (Amil) was the head of finance and revenue department.
Caliph was the Chief Judge of the Empire. There were also Qazis in the provinces assisted by a team of judicial experts in Shari’ah. Apart from Qur’ānic injections and Sunnah in judicial matters, Ijma (collective opinion) was also allowed.
Caliph Umar’s role in making an Islamic Empire was great. He played a vital role in the victories of Muslims against enemies during the Prophet’s time and the later period till the end of his regime. He added many regions to the Islamic nation; Palestine came under the Islamic Empire during his time.
Caliph Umar divided the Empire in eight provinces: Madinah, Makkah, Kufa, Basra, Egypt, Palestine, Syria, and Jazriah. A governor was the head of each region, and a well-coordinated team of administrators worked under the governor. Any person could approach the governor for solution to grievances.
MILITARY ADMINISTRATION
Like civil administration, military administration was very systematic and rooted in justice and discipline. There was no excess or misbehaviour or maladministration as we see today in Egypt or in Israel. Each and every soldier obeyed the command of the officer who was trained in Islamic principles set up by the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be to him) on matters concerning military actions.
The Caliph was the supreme commander of the army. There was a commander-in-chief (Ameer) who represented the Caliph, and he was also the Imam of the military. There were separate commander for each province. Umar was a military genius, and he divided the empire in nine military districts: Kufa, Madinah, Basra, Mawsil, Misr, Fustat, Damascus, Hims, and Palestine; and military stations were established at strategic points. He reformed the military and enlarged the number of soldiers. His army consisted of people of different races and tribes.
The army had two divisions: Infantry and Cavalry. The army men were highly trained in military lessons as well as in Islamic principles.
PERSONAL MERITS
Caliph Umar faithfully followed Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be to him) in all aspects of administration and was very sincere in safeguarding public property. He was a man of simple life and claimed no advantage as a ruler. He mostly wore patched clothes. Once, people saw him wearing clothes made out of ration share of cloth and found it be more than his share. When objected, Umar explained to them that it was the share of his son also viz. two shares. He was a true successor to Abu Bakr and continued the impartial rule set up by the first Caliph. He was free from nepotism and red-tapism. Appointments were made only on merit, and those who exercised unnecessary power were punished as in the case of Amr ibn Aas, the governor of Egypt, for favouring his son over his rival, a Christian, in a race.
Caliph Umar used to do the service of a messenger (or a postman) and a servant to poor families. Umar became great on the basis of his faith and pious deeds and not due to his physical power.
Once, when Umar suggested that there should be limit to Mehr (compulsory gift given by bridegroom to bride), an old lady corrected Umar saying there is no limit to Mehr according to Islamic principles. Once Umar heard a pregnant woman crying due to delivery pain, he took his wife along with him to the house and helped the woman in delivery. Umar prepared food for the family and gave financial assistance to them. Another time the Caliph saw an old lady with heavy load. He helped her to carry the bag on which she commented, “You are best suited for Caliphate (Khilafat). One day, a man complained that his hair was cut and punished unnecessarily by Abu Musa Ashaari. Realising the incidence to be true, the Caliph ordered Abu Musa Ashaari to undergo punishment.
Once a man came to the Caliph and started saying, ’curse on you’. When the Caliph enquired the reason for it, the man replied that the governor of Egypt Eyalu ibn Ghanam was doing injustice and maladministration. After enquiry the governor was dismissed from his post.
Umar’s simple lifestyle influenced many contemporaries including Umair ibn Saad, the governor of Hims, Abu Ubaidah, the governor of Syria and Salman Farsi. Umar always preferred faith and virtue to wealth and power. That is why he directed his son to marry a poor girl who denied adding water to milk on her mother’s suggestion. Umar never allowed shirk even at any micro level.
Umar’s devotion to Islamic principles was so firm that he could not admit the demise of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be to him). He shouted with a sword in his hand that if anyone says the Prophet is dead, he would cut his head. Then Abu Bakr read Qur’ānic ayaats which read ‘Muhammad is a human being and Messengers also have to leave this world’.
Umar was very keen in keeping the officials humble and God-fearing. During his meeting with the Christian Patriarch at Jerusalem it was time for prayer. The Patriarch told the Caliph to perform prayer in the Church on which Umar commented, “If I do it, later Muslims would raise claim for that reason.” Umar ordered to cut a tree under which the Prophet had once sat, fearing it would become a place of pilgrimage.
Umar was a good orator as well as a wise man. His quest for knowledge motivated him to establish many educational institutions. He was an expert wrestler and a horse rider.
Umar was a research scholar and spent most of his time in the pursuit of knowledge. He had deep knowledge of the Holy Qur’ān and the Prophet’s tradition (hadith). It is said that Umar reported 537 hadiths. He was a talented person and an exponent in the branches of jurisprudence. He could suggest solution to any complicated problems on the basis of the Holy Qur’ān and Hadith. He conducted discourses on various topics, and his study classes were attended by famous scholars like Ubayy ibn Kaab, Saeed ibn Thabith, Abdullah ibn Abbas, Abdur Rahman ibn Auf and Abdullah ibn Masud.
Criminals were punished severely. He organised various Islamic activities in a systematic way, and it was Umar who regularised Taraweeh (during the month of Ramadhan) in a systematic manner.
Many books on the history of early Islamic period were written in Arabic. Urdu book, Al-Farooq by Allama Shibli Nuamani is an authentic book on Caliph Umar. The book Khulafau Rashid by Prof. Muhammad Aslam Jayrajpuri is also very helpful in understanding Caliph Umar.
UMAR AND NON-MUSLIMS
Umar took a very lenient attitude towards non-Muslims in the Islamic nation. He gave protection to Dhimmis (non-Muslim subjects in an Islamic nation) and punished the Muslims who attacked them. The governor of Hims, Umair ibn Saad, rebuked a non-Muslim, and later repented. Subsequently, he resigned from the post for that reason. When the resignation letter was submitted to the Caliph, he found the decision to be correct. Once, a Christian lady complained to the Caliph regarding the sale of her house for expansion of a mosque suggested by the governor. Even though the governor offered many times the cost of the property, she was not willing to sell it. Umar cancelled the deal. Once the Caliph wrote to Abu Ubaidah, the governor of Syria, “Do not allow any Muslim to attack non-Muslims and acquire their wealth. Obey all conditions laid down in the agreement with them. Christians of Jerusalem greeted Umar with joy when he went there to take charge of Palestine.
CRIME AND PUNISHMENT
Caliph Umar earned the title Al-Farooq due to his ability to distinguish between right and wrong. One day, the Caliph saw a healthy person beating a weak person. The healthy person was Jabl, the ruler of Ghassan. Umar told him to undergo punishment for the crime. However, he escaped to Rome fearing punishment. Umar declared, “Law is equal for all.”
Caliph Umar punished the guilty in such a way as to correct them and not to take any revenge. Once, a person was produced before the Caliph for an act of prostitution. Umar questioned four persons who accompanied the accused person for witnesses. But, only three persons stood witness, and the fourth said he was informed of the incident. Thereby, the accused was acquitted, and the three witnesses were punished. Umar directed Amr ibn Aaas to behave impartially with all criminals when he had heard that his son Abdur Rahman was punished at a hidden place whereas his partner was punished publically for the same crime.
Caliph Umar was not a blind follower of law. Once a woman involved in a sexual offence was brought before Umar. On her admittance of the crime, Umar ordered to execute the punishment (death punishment). However, on Ali ibn Abi Talib’s suggestion that the motivator also should be punished, Umar re-examined the matter and found that she was compelled to do the crime in an inevitable situation. Umar set her free. Those against whom charges were levelled were sentenced and punishment was given if found guilty.
Newly introduced jail system was an achievement of Umar’s reign. Jails were set up in all cities.
Caliph Umar was very keen and stubborn in implementing the Divine law (Shari’ah). He used to weep saying, “If a lamb happens to die out of hunger on the banks of the Tigris, Umar will have to answer to Allah on the Day of Judgment.”
ECONOMIC MEASURES
Islamic economic system was strictly followed. The system of public treasury established by Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be to him) for the welfare of people was strictly maintained by Umar. The taxation system was favourable to all sections of people.
Zakat was collected as per the Islamic law. The state also raised money and other wealth in the form of Sadaqua (gift or contribution). Jizia was a form of taxation from non-Muslims, who were safe under the administration, and exempted from Zakat and other forms of taxation collected from Muslims. Kharaj was the tax levied on Jews for the ownership of the state land retained to them. The revenue collected from land property owned directly by the state came to be known as Al-Faj. One-fifth share of the spoils of the war belonged to the state which is known as Ghanimah or Khams.
AN ESTIMATE OF UMAR
We came across some great personalities in the ancient human history like Alexander, Julius Caesar, Hammurabi, Ashoka, Samudragupta and so on. Among such great personalities, Umar Khattab’s place is summarised by Irwin I T Rosenthal, a famous historian, in these words: “Many scholars acquainted with the platonic thought linked Plato’s Ideal Republic with the reign of Caliph Umar. Some also claimed that the ideal Islamic state as that envisaged and demanded by the Shari’ah was superior to all the other forms of state, including Plato’s Republic.” (Some aspects of Islamic culture, quoted by M A Karandhikar in Islam in India’s Transition to Modernity, p. 65).
Caliph Umar was not merely a great soldier but an equally great administrator as well. He reorganised the regions he had added to the Islamic Empire left by the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be to him) for administrative convenience. He was a genius administrator as well as a staunch follower of Islam. He followed the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be to him) in all walks of life inch by inch and feet by feet. In fact, it was Umar who spread the Islamic form of administration. Even though the Caliph was the head of administration, it was really ‘by the people’.
Philip K Hitti writes: “Simple and frugal in manner, his (Abu Bakr ) energetic and talented successor, Umar (C.E. 634-44) who was of towering height and strong physique continued at least for some time after becoming Caliph to support himself by trade and lived throughout his life in a style as that of a Bedouin sheik. His irreproachable character became an exemplar for all conscientious successors to follow. He owned, we are told, one shirt and one mantle only, both conspicuous for their patch work, alert on a bed of palm leaves and had no concern other than the maintenance of the purity of the faith, the upholding of justice and the ascendancy and security of Islam and the Arabians. Arabic literature is replete with anecdotes extolling Umar’s stern character.” (History of the Arabs, p. 175)
According to Cambridge History of Islam, “Physically Umar was a giant with a long beard. His very appearance inspired respect.… He was fond of walking afoot the streets of Madinah with a hide whip in his hand, which he did not hesitate to apply to the shoulders of those who infringed the law”. (Ed. by P M Holt and others, p. 66)