ISLAMIC REFORM AND REVIVAL IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY INDIA:
THE TARIQAH-I-MUHAMMADIYAH
By Harlan O. Pearson
Yoda Press, New Delhi – 110 001
First Publication Year 2008
266pp
Indian Rupees295, Soft.
Reviewed by ASIF ANWAR ALIG
What distinguishes Islamic traditions in the Indian subcontinent and Islam’s birthplace Saudi Arabia or rest parts of the world? Local traditions mattered much in India. Islam denounces sectarian divisions among its followers but ironically Muslims of this region are divided in different sects or creeds. Islamic Reform and Revival in Nineteenth-century India: The Tariqah-i-Muhammadiyah is a research work on changing perspectives in Indian Islam since centuries. Such trends are still witnessed in the ‘divided Indian Muslim communities’.
The cursory description of Islam’s expansion in Sindh (Indus Valley) in the Western part of India by Arab traders in the early 8th century and its powerful impact or steady spread in rest parts are notable history described in this book. Islamic expansion under political patronage in this subcontinent from Delhi Sultanate’s establishment in early 13th century to Muslims’ emergence as dominant ruling groups over Indo-Gangetic plains are lucidly described. Muslims therefore won and controlled the country’s Southern region.
Indian subcontinent witnessed dominance of many tariqahs (Sufi orders) for centuries to proliferate Islam under supreme spiritual and material authority pirs (Spiritual leaders). Their appointments would base on spiritual merits. On occasions inherited pirs became established spiritual descents or silsilah for Islamic revivalism.
Twelfth century India witnessed establishment of major Sufi order Chishtiyyah under Shaikh Mu’inuddin Chishti. Suhrawardi order was introduced by Shaikh Shihabuddin Umar Suhrawardi disciples later. Many Sufi orders were there in the subcontinent but Chishtiyyah dominated during Delhi Sultanate period. Sufism reached at its height in Delhi while Chishti pir Shaikh Nizamuddin Awliya spread Islamic message.
This book overviews Sufi orders particularly those after the 16th century. Qadiri and Naqshbandi orders remained prestigious during Mughal power’s zenith. The pirs would have attained position of divine symbols instead of ethical spiritual guides. It was a period when Islamic values had literally deviated from original purpose of Sufism in the subcontinent.
Mughal’s Delhi encountered social declination in the 18th century with waning of power. Influential preacher Shah Wali Allah (1703-62) foresaw consequences of dwindling Muslim rule. He began vast reformulation of Islamic system in India by combining ideas of Ulama and mystical Sufis to safeguard Islamic values.
The Fatwa-i-Alamgiri was a comprehensive work on Hanafi jurisprudence started by Shah Abd Al-Rahim in Emperor Aurangzeb’s court. Shah Wali Allah played an important role to reconcile many differences to bring a thorough system with efforts to unify different fiqhs (schools of law). He did that in the light of Prophet Muhammad’s hadith (peace and blessings of Allah be to him), his ijtihad (individual judgments) and understanding of the Qur’ān for unification. With Mughal Empire falling into the British hands in 1803, Shah Abd-Al Aziz (1746-1824) declared India no longer a Muslim state. He issued a fatwa (statement) and concentrated on the Tariqah-i-Muhammadiyah for reforms.
Founder of Tariqah-i-Muhammadiyah, Sayyid Ahmad Brelwi (1786-1831) became Shah Abd-Al Aziz’s disciple in 1806. The Naqshbandiyah, Qadiriyah and Chishtiyyah Sufi tariqahs had already emerged in the subcontinent by then. Tariqah-i-Muhammadiyah was meant to purify and revitalise Indian Muslims based on his doctrine on the Qur’ān and hadith besides encompassing mystical Sufi tariqahs. Based on pure spiritual Islamic concept, it proved a reliable guide to action in unfavourable social circumstances to propagate Islam in India under the British rule.
This research work vividly explains religious reforms in 19th century India from acceptance and rejection of Muhammadi teachings by the country’s Muslims. It was even labelled a fundamentalist system but several progressive Muslims accepted such reforms. Eminent educationalist Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-1898) recognised value of early Muslim rulers and power transition to the British. He followed a completely new strategy.
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan published his study of Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be to him) in 1842 which based on Shah Wali Allah’s work. His Athar as Sanadid (1847) is a major historical work on Delhi and systematically describes surviving Muslim monuments. Foundation of Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (now Aligarh Muslim University) in 1875 was aimed to bring reforms among Indian Muslims through educating them.
Progressive Muslim cum contemporary observer Mir Shahamat Ali translated Muhammadi work Taqwiyat al-Iman by Muhammad Ismail into English in 1852. He published it in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society to bring reforms in Muslim societies.
Famous Deoband seminary has been equally highlighted in this book. It brought reforms in the Muslim societies in India for transformation in Indian Islam while the 19th century wrapped. Founded in 1867 by Muhammad Qasim Nanautawi and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi amongst others, the prestigious seminary began distinctive religious and social reforms through educating Muslims.
By offering traditional Islamic education, Deoband Seminary preserved the glory of Islam in Indian subcontinent. It inspired the emergence of many religious institutions (madrasas) throughout northern part of India in the 19th century to pave the way for transformation in Muslims’ lives.
This book equally projects the role of many vernacular especially Urdu newspapers to bring awareness among Indian Muslims. Urdu or Hindustani press helped Muslims to comprehend the true faith once they spread message of Islam by keeping in consideration particular social trends.
In conclusion, this book reinforces that Tariqah-i Muhammadiyah represented a unique stage in India’s fundamental Islamic transformation during Mughal disintegration. Reformers and Sufis including Shah Wali Allah aptly responded socio-political dislocation occurring due to historic changes in Indian subcontinent that intimidated Muslims and directly affected the religion of Islam.
Such reforms by various Sufi orders equally developed sectarian trends in the Indian Islam. They popularised this religion in the Indian subcontinent without any concrete political backup. Ironically sectarian trends damaged Muslim societies for maximum extent.
[The reviewer is assistant professor and media relations specialist at Saudi Ministry of Education. He worked earlier as an executive producer in ETV Networks; editorial coordinator at Management Development Institute, India and media specialist at Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University, Saudi Arabia. [email protected].]