Since the landing of Napoleon on the Egyptian shores in 1798, the renaissance of Muslim education and Arabic literature started. Though, Egypt experienced the military defeat and destruction in this attack, it also was exposed to the advancement of Europe in the field of education, science, technology and military, etc. Napoleon brought with him not only soldiers but also a team of scholars and scientists, who opened in Egypt two European-style schools, established a newspaper, set up a drama club, and founded a library, few chemical laboratories, and some astronomical observatories. This advancement of Europe in science and technology made the Egyptians astonished and they began to imagine that the French had demons under their control and with their help they were capable of performing such big tasks. But Mohammad Ali was aware of the fact that the miracle of Europe in performing these big tasks is based on their progress and advancement in the field of science and technology. Therefore, when he became the ruler of Egypt in 1805, after departure of Napoleon, he paid his full consideration to the spread of modern education.
ALI’S MODERNISATION OF EDUCATION
Mohammad Ali’s ascendancy to power marks the beginning of modern renaissance in Egypt. He is generally described as the first ruler of Egypt who seriously attempted to modernise the country and its education system on the European line. In order to achieve this goal, he opened in Egypt modern schools, invited European experts to teach the Egyptians modern science and education, and sent outstanding graduates of al-Azhar among other Egyptian youths, to Europe to receive modern education. Since 1813 to 1848, he sent about 14 student delegations and when they came back to Egypt, he appointed them as teachers in modern schools, who in turn, contributed according to their talents and capacities in modernising Egypt and its education system.
CONTRIBUTION OF AL-TAHTAWI
Among these students, Al-Shaikh Rifa’a Rafe’ al-Tahtawi occupies the highest honour due to his remarkable contribution to the modern renaissance. Al-Tahtawi was sent to France, as leader of the delegation in 1824, where he registered in his diary valuable information of French lifestyle, education and government system, and noted their advancement in the field of science, technology and information. When he came back to Egypt in 1832, the Egyptian government published his diary under the title Takhlis al-abriz fi takhlis al-baris. The book inspired a new leaf to the life of Egyptians and Arabs and played an important role in the creation of the intellectual awakening in the Islamic world. Therefore Al-Tahtawi is considered the first reformist of Egypt and Islamic world in the field of Muslim education, modern Arabic language and literature, Arabic journalism, and translation.
Apart from this book, he has written two more books on education. The first book is known as Manahij al-albab fi mabahij al-aadab (the approach of wise men in the delightful breeding) and the other is Murshid al-Ameen lilbanat wa al-Baneen (the best guide for boys and girls). In the latter he especially devoted a chapter to the education of girls under the title Tashrik al-Banat ma’ al-sibyan fi al- Ta’ullum (the participation of girls with boys in learning, teaching and education). In this chapter he says that wasting time by women and their unemployment are as bad as these are considered in the case of boys, and that the cause of involvement of women in slanderous rumours and bad habits is to pass their time in idle. In such a way he invited not only Egyptian men but women also to equip themselves with modern education.
Above all, Al-Shaikh Rifa’a Rafe’ has made a remarkable contribution to the modern renaissance. He is the first Egyptian who had the honour of editing the first Arabic newspaper, Al-Waqaae’ al-Misriyah established by Mohammad Ali. He used this newspaper to articulate his opinions and ideas on the importance of modern education and to awaken Muslims from their slumber. It is interesting to know that Mohammad Ali opened Madrasat al alalsun wa al-tarjama (the school of languages and translation) and he was the first supervisor of this school. Thus, he has the credit to train a number of students in translation, who later on participated in the educational renaissance. Therefore Al-Shaikh Rifa’a Rafe’ was regarded as the pillar of modern educational renaissance.
EUROPEAN EDUCATION IN EGYPT
With the return of the members of 1824 delegation from France to Egypt in 1832, a number of modern schools were opened, where most of the members of this delegation were appointed as teachers. With their efforts in the teaching services, a committee was set up in 1836 with the aim of spreading modern schools all over the country and regularising them systematically. The committee worked in this regard and finally it presented its report in which it recommended to divide these schools into three categories. In other words, three stages were decided for education and these are as follow:
Al-Madaris al-ibtidaiyah (primary schools) aimed at spreading primary education to all the citizens of the country. Therefore, the committee has recommended to set up fifty more primary schools all over the country.
Al-Madaris al-Tajhizia (preparatory or secondary schools) aimed to prepare the students within four years for the specialised schools. Therefore, the syllabus of these schools included subjects like Social Sciences as well as Arabic language and literature. In the beginning there were two preparatory schools only but as time passed, the number of these schools increased.
Al-Madaris al-Khusoosiyah (the specialised schools). These schools were established with the aim of providing the students with higher education and making them specialised in a particular subject. Most prominent among these schools of higher education were Madrasat al Handasa (Engineering School) established in 1816, Madrasat al-Tibb (Institution of Medical Sciences) established in 1827, Madrasa al-alsun (School of Languages) set up in 1836 and Madrast al-Madfai’yah (Defencse School).
DIWAN AL MADARIS
In 1837 a department known as Diwan al-Madaris was set up to control these modern schools and to run them systematically. Mustafa Bek was appointed its first director, who successfully ran and controlled these modern schools and spread its network throughout the country. Thus, modern education and its system spread at first in Egypt, then in other countries of the Islamic world.
TRADITIONAL EDUCATION SYSTEM
It is said that when modern European Education system was being promoted in Egypt, there were Kuttab (places of primary education) and mosque (the institution for higher education), which were imparting education on the traditional line. The Kuttab was fixed for primary education, where the Qur’ān and the art of writing and reading were taught. After completion of Kuttab education, students went to a mosque for higher education, where Islamic Sciences, Arabic language and literature were taught.
In this education system, a student spent a few years of his life around a teaching circle of a particular teacher at the mosque, and when he realised his mastery over the subjects, he began to hold teaching circle in other side of the mosque. If students gathered around him for his lectures, he was given permission of teaching. This permission was considered equivalent to the graduation degree and licence as granted by a modern university nowadays. In the case of his failure in attracting students to his teaching circle, he would have to go back to the class of his former teacher to improve his ability. This education system was prevalent among the mosques, which were only places for traditional higher education in Egypt and in other parts of the Muslim world. Among these mosques Jame’ al-Azhar was prominent, which is now called Jamiatu al-Azhar.
THE UNIVERSITY OF AL-AZHAR
The University of al-Azhar is regarded one of the oldest universities in the world. It was established by Johar al-Saqli with the aim of spreading the principles of Shiite Islam. It began as a mosque-school at Cairo in Egypt. It was taken over by Sunnis after the collapse of the Ismaili kingdom and was devoted to the study of Shariat law according to Shafi’ei system. The teaching of the other Sunni Schools of law was added under the command of the Caliph of Salahuddin Ayyubi. Since then Al-Azhar school is pledged to deliver the education of four sunni schools of Shariat law. Apart from law, it was also the centre of arithmetic, physics, Arabic language and literature. During the 9th to 15th century, it was one of several places of higher learning in Egypt, during the reign of Mamluk after collapse of Baghdad. Al-Azhar-School was the only torchbearer of Islamic Sciences and Arabic language and literature, but in the Ottoman period, it suffered educational stagnation and decline due to sufi control of it. This educational stagnation lasted till modern renaissance which, as illustrated above, started after Napoleon attack on Egypt in 1798.
CLASH BETWEEN MODERN AND TRADITIONAL EDUCATION
Mohammad Ali did not meddle with the traditional educational institutions of Kuttab and Mosque-schools. However, he opened new schools for modern education, and appointed teachers all those graduates of Jame’ al-Azhar, who had returned from Europe armed with modern education. Both kinds of schools – modern and traditional – functioned for a long time without clash of interests of each other. But when the influence of modern education increased, the graduates of both schools started to clash with each other. If the modern graduates accused the traditional graduates of educational stagnation and ignorance, the traditional graduates blamed the modern graduates of being agents of Europe and infidels. This blame-game still persists.
But there were a few intellectuals in both the groups who were keen to effect a compromise between the two education systems, and worked out an education system so as to retain the benefits of the two systems of education. In this regard the name of Shaikh al-Azhar Al-Uroosi is in forefront. He held several meetings and discussions with Dr. Cliot Bek on the inclusion of modern subjects into the syllabus of Al-Azhar, but his dream of inclusion of the modern subjects could not fulfil due to his sudden demise. After Shaikh al-Uroosi, Shaikh al-Attar attempted seriously for the inclusion of modern subjects in the syllabus of Al-Azhar and proposed the name of Shaik Rafa’a al-Rife’ al-Tahtawi for the delegation of 1824, and was advised by him to record everything about France which will be beneficial for Egypt. Shaik Rafa’a al-Rife’ al-Tahtawi registered every observation he deemed beneficial in his diary. The diary, as mentioned above, was later published under the title Takhalis al-abriz fi takhlis al-baris in Egypt in 1832. Finally the dream of these great teachers of Al-Azhar came true at the hands of Shaikh Al-Azhar Mohammad Abduh.
MUHAMMAD ABDUH
Muhammad Abduh was considered one of the modern reformists. He is the first man of Islam in modern age who reconciled the fundamental ideas of Islam with the scientific ideas of the West, and emphasised that Islam is not only a religion comfortable with reason but the only religion that calls upon man to use his own reason and investigate nature to understand. To prove this, he cited those numerous Qur’ānic verses which enjoin upon man to think intelligently and to study nature as the Signs of Allah. Moreover he also aroused Muslims to develop the medieval content of Islam to meet the need of the modern society. He advocated strongly for revival of Ijtihad. Ijtihad is nothing but a way of independent thinking on religious issues in the light of Islamic sources. He emphasised that that way is the only way to open our minds on different aspects of modern life. Moreover, he considered the closing of door of Ijtihad one of the major causes of decline of Islamic education.
It is interesting to mention here that when Khedive Abbas ascended the throne of Egypt in 1892, Shaikh Mohammad Abduh developed good relation with him. He then attempted seriously to bring about reform in the education system of Al-Azhar, and finally his attempts bore fruit in the shape of formation of education department which comprised the big scholars of four Sunni Schools of Shariat law under his supervision in 1895. Moreover in 1896 an act of reform was passed. These reformations included increasing the teachers’ salaries, introduction of new system of holding classes and exams, establishment of a special pharmacy for the Al-Azhar students, and appointment of doctors for their treatment.
As far as the reform of the syllabus is concerned, it witnessed the inclusion of a few new and modern subjects like Mathematics, Algebra, History and Geography. Apart from this, some religious sciences and literary books were replaced by Asrar al-Balagah and Dalaile-al-ae’jaz of Al-jurjani, alwaseelah al-adabiah, and al-kilam al-athaman of Shaikh Husain al-Marsafi, al-Hamasa of Abu Tammam and al-Kamil of al-Mubarrad. In this way the Islamic traditional schools opened their doors for modern education and adopted its system at first in Egypt and then in all other countries in the Islamic world.